LEARNING TO UNDERSTAND A MEDICAL TEXT I. ANATOMY

1. There will be a new student in our group. 2. There are 14 faculties in the Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy. 3. There were two meetings last week. 4. In front of the museum there is a monument to I.M. Sechenov.

Упражнение 2. Составьте 5 предложений с оборотом there is, there are, используя данные ниже слова. Согласуйте форму глагола с последующими существительными.

Упражнение 3. Выберите правильный вариант для русского предложения. Обратите внимание на порядок слов русского и английского предложений.

Упражнение 4. Напишите II, III, IV формы следующих глаголов. Проверьте себя по таблице (см. Грамматический справочник, ? 9).

to ask, to use, to work, to enter, to speak, to found, to try, to study, to know, to like, to be, to consist

Упражнение 5. Определите время глагола-сказуемого в следующих пред- ложениях.

1. Doctors help people when they are ill. 2. The lecture on anatomy will begin at 12 p.m. 3. I go to the Academy by bus. 4. She went home an hour ago. 5. Hippocrates established medical schools in Athens.

Упражнение 6. Поставьте подлежащие в следующих предложениях в един- ственном числе и согласуйте с ними форму сказуемого. Переведите пред- ложения.

1. Medical students study the structure of the human body. 2. These texts are easy to translate. 3. We shall work in the hospital this month. 4. My friends want to enter a medical college. 5. They speak English well.

Упражнение 7. Укажите, какие сказуемые в данных предложениях выра- жены правильными глаголами.

1. The teacher asked many questions at the lesson. 2. She got all her text-books from the library. 3. The students worked at the laboratory under the guidance of their teacher. 4. Naturalists divided all animals into two classes.

Упражнение 8. Прочтите следующие слова и сочетания слов. Переведи- те их.

Упражнение 9. Отработайте чтение следующих предложений:

Упражнение 10. Прочтите и переведите следующие слова. Запомните зна чение:

1. приставок: а) глаголов:

ге- опять, назад: replace, reread, rewrite in- в, на: include, inhale, inflame

ex- из: exclude, exchange, expel б) прилагательных:

un-, in-, im-, ir-, il- - отсутствие качества: unimportant, uneasy, invertebrate, impure, irregular, irresponsive, illegal, illogical 2. суффиксов:

а) прилагательных:

-у: bony, windy, healthy

-al: social, local, special, spinal, medical, biological -less - отсутствие качества: frameless, helpless, lifeless

б) наречий:

-ly: quickly, really, usually, easily, especially, carefully

Упражнение 11. Переведите следующие производные слова.

1. bone, bony, backbone, breastbone; 2. to divide into, division, to subdivide, subdivision, divisible; 3. to include, to exclude, to conclude, included, exclusively, conclusion; 4. a joint, to join, joined, jointly; 5. to place, to replace, replacement, to be placed; 6. firm, firmly, to reaffirm; 7. frame, framework, frameless

Упражнение 12. Просмотрите текст А и скажите, какие части скелета описаны в данном тексте.

Text А The Skeleton

1. The bones form the skeleton of the body. The most important part of the skeleton is the backbone. It is so important that naturalists divided all animals into two classes - those which have a backbone and those which have none. All the higher animals have a backbone, or vertebral column and they are therefore called (называются) vertebrate animals. The others are called invertebrate animals.

2. The bones which form the skeleton or bony framework of the body include the bones of the head, the bones of the trunk, the bones of the lower and upper limbs.

3. At the upper end of the backbone there is the skull. Inside the skull is the brain. The bones of the head include the bones which make up the box-like structure, the skull, and freely movable bone which forms our lower jaw.

4. There is another box of bones in front of the backbone. The ribs, which join the backbone behind and bend round towards the breastbone in front, form a strong cage - the chest, inside of which there is the

heart and the lungs. The bones of the trunk include the spinal column, the ribs and the breastbone.

5. The arms join the body at the shoulder, and the shoulder itself consists of two bones - the collar-bone in front, and the shoulder-blade behind. Between the shoulder and the elbow there is only one bone in the arm, but between the elbow and the wrist there are two. In the wrist there are eight small bones. They are bound (связаны) together, but their large number allows the wrist to bend freely. Next come the bones of the hand itself. In the body or palm of the hand there are five long bones - one for each finger and one for the thumb. Each of the fingers has three bones, and the thumb has two. Thus we have twenty-seven bones in the framework of the hand and wrist alone.

Упражнение 13. 1) Прочтите и переведите текст А. Абзац 5 переведите письменно. 2) Найдите в тексте А ответы на следующие вопросы и зачитайте их.

1. Is the backbone the most important part of the body? 2. What classes do the naturalists divide all the animals into? 3. What does the skull include? 4. The bones of the trunk include the spinal column, the ribs and the breastbone, don't they? 5. How does the wrist work?

3) Составьте письменно план текста А.

Упражнение 14. Подберите к латинским словам английские эквиваленты.

Упражнение 15. Подберите пары синонимов.

vertebral column, injury, cage, damage, harm, box, backbone

Упражнение 16. Подберите пары антонимов.

to include, inside, immovable, in front of, lower, behind, invertebrate, to exclude, movable, vertebrate, outside, upper, higher

Упражнение 17. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите, какими частями речи являются выделенные слова.

1. The form of the skull depends upon the form of the bones. The bones form the framework of the body. 2. The number of the bones in the hand and wrist alone is 27. The bones in the human skeleton number 223. There is a number of movable bones in the skull. 3. The face is the ventral part of the skull. Medicine faces many problems. 4. A separate bone in the vertebral column is called (называется) a vertebra. Vertebrae separate the spinal canal.

Упражнение 18. Измените следующие предложения согласно образцу. Переведите их на русский язык.

Образец: We have special atlases on anatomy in our library.

There are special atlases on anatomy in our library. 1. We have 27 bones in the framework of the hand and wrist alone. 2. Each hand has four fingers and one thumb. 3. We have no special names for ulna and radius in the modern English language.

Упражнение 19. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на оборот there is.

1. There is the skull at the upper end of the backbone. 2. There are many illustrated books on Human Anatomy. 3. There are three bones in each finger. 4. There is no backbone in invertebrate animals. 5. There are special hospitals for children in every town.

Упражнение 20. Поставьте сказуемые в следующих предложениях в отрицательной форме, переведите предложения.

Образец: I went to see them yesterday.

I did not go to see them yesterday. 1. The professor asked many questions at the seminar. 2. I got many text-books from the library. 3. I entered the Institute last year. 4. We shall help him with his studies. 5. He knows Human Anatomy well.

Упражнение 21. Задайте вопросы, ответами на которые были бы следующие предложения.

1. Yes, they do. The bones form the skeleton of the body. 2. Yes, they did. Naturalists divided all animals into two classes. 3. Yes, they will. The first-year students will study the structure of the human body this year. 4. Yes, they do. The bones of the trunk include the spinal column, the ribs and the breastbone.

Упражнение 22. Прочтите предложения, поставив глаголы, данные в скобках, в соответствующих временах группы Indefinite и согласуйте их с формой подлежащего и контекстом.

1. The trunk (to consist) of the chest, the abdomen and the back. 2. The arms (to join) the body in front of the backbone. 3. Galen was the first who (to describe) completely and accurately the structure of the body. 4. The upper cavity, the thorax, (to include) the heart and the lungs. 5. Tomorrow the doctor (to come) and (to examine) you. 6. We (to begin) to study the bones of the upper and lower limbs last week.

Упражнение 23. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Позвоночные животные образуют класс высших животных. 2. Беспозвоночные животные составляют класс низших животных.

3. Большое количество костей в запястье позволяет ему свободно двигаться. 4. Ребра защищают сердце, легкие и другие органы грудной клетки. 5. Плечо, предплечье и кисть образуют верхнюю конечность.

Упражнение 24. Опишите части тела, используя рис. 1. и следующие выражения.

The skull includes... The trunk consists of ... The arms form the body at ... The bones form... There are ... bones in ... The spinal canal contains ...

Часть II Слова к части II

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Прочтите и догадайтесь о значении следующих слов, используя знание русского и латинского языков. Проверьте себя по словарю.

general, separate, naturally, abdomen, bilaterally, symmetrical, substance, canal, spinal, nervous, diaphragm, dorsal, pharynx

Упражнение 2. Подберите к латинским словам английские эквиваленты.

Упражнение 3. Подберите пары синонимов.

brain case, to include, to separate, chamber, to contain, skull, cavity, to distinguish

Упражнение 4. Подберите пары антонимов.

the latter, the former, long, at the upper end, short, at the bottom

Упражнение 5. Прочитайте и запомните перевод следующих внешне похожих слов, часто встречающихся в научной литературе. Переведите предложения с этими словами.

last последний из ряда или по времени, предыдущий

the latest последний, недавний

the latter последний из двух (ранее упомянутых)

1. We remember the last lesson at school. 2. They were the last to come. 3. I like to listen to the latest news. His latest operation on the heart was yesterday. 4. The thorax encloses the heart and the lungs, the latter are on each side of the heart.

Упражнение 6. Переведите со словарем. Обратите внимание на изменение значения слова в зависимости от контекста.

Упражнение 7. Просмотрите текст В (время - 10 мин): 1) скажите, в каких абзацах кратко изложено содержание текста «А» и в каких дается новая информация. 2) найдите предложения: а) с оборотом there is, there are. Объясните, как вы будете переводить предложения, в которых отсутствует обстоятельство места; б) с глаголом-сказуемым в форме Indefinite в действительном залоге. 3) Переведите предложения.

Text В

The human body is obviously separable into the head, the trunk and the limbs. In the head, the brain-case or skull is distinguishable from the face. The trunk includes the chest or thorax, and the abdomen. Of the limbs there are two pairs - the upper, or arms, and the lower, or legs; and the legs and arms again are separable into several parts - the thigh, the leg and the toes in the lower limb and the upper arm, the forearm, the wrist and the fingers in the upper limb.

The whole body, is bilaterally symmetrical. There are special bones in the trunk which are bound (связаны) together by a very strong and tough substance into a long column, which lies nearer the dorsal (or back) than ventral (or front) part of the body The bones are called (называются) the vertebrae. They separate a long narrow canal, the spinal canal, which lies upon the dorsal side.

The spinal canal contains a long white cord - the spinal cord - which is an important part of the nervous system. The diaphragm divides the ventral chamber into two cavities - the thorax and abdomen. The alimentary canal transverses these cavities from one end to the other and pierces the diaphragm. In the abdomen there are also two kidneys, which lie against each side of the vertebral column, the ureters, the bladder, the liver, the pancreas and the spleen. The thorax encloses the heart and two lungs. The latter lie one on each side of the heart.

The dorsal chamber, or cavity of the skull, opens into the spinal canal. It contains the brain, which is continuous with the spinal cord. The brain and the spinal cord together constitute the cerebrospinal system. The ventral chamber, or cavity of the face encloses mouth and pharynx, into which the upper end of the alimentary canal (gullet or oesophagus) opens.

Упражнение 8. Прочтите каждое суждение. Найдите в тексте В предло- жения, более полно выражающие мысль данного суждения, и прочтите их.

1. The parts of the body are the head, the trunk and the limbs. 2. The vertebral column divides the trunk symmetrically. 3. The spinal canal contains a cord. 4. The diaphragm divides the trunk into two cavities. 5. The alimentary canal transverses them. 6. The oesophagus opens into the pharynx.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 1

Упражнение 1. Укажите предложения, которые следует переводить, начи- ная: а) с обстоятельства места; б) со сказуемого. Переведите их.

1. There is a long white cord in the spinal canal. 2. There are two pairs of limbs in the human skeleton. 3. There are three groups of vertebrae according to their position. 4. There are differences in the structure of vertebrae. 5. There exist two vertebral segments: anteriour and posterior.

(Ответы: a) 1, 2, 4. б) 3, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 16 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Образуйте форму инфинитива от следующих глагольных форм.

possessing, separated, made up, is, built, allows, turning, bent, containing, will bind

LESSON TWO

THE MUSCLES

1. Времена группы Continuous (Active Voice) (? 11)

2. Модальные глаголы can, must, may (? 17)

3. Функции и перевод слова that (those) (? 34)

Часть I Слова к части I

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Найдите в каждом ряду глагол во временах группы Contin- uous (см. таблицу в ? 11 Грамматического справочника).

1. was placing; placed; is placed; 2. bound; bind; is binding 3. were bent; was bending; bent; 4. joins; is joining; were joined; 5. are not included; will be including; includes; 6. is distinguishing; are distinguishing; distinguishes

Упражнение 2. Поставьте след. предложения в отрицательную форму.

Образец: We are working at the laboratory now.

We are not working at the laboratory now. 1. They were discussing the functions of brain for two hours running. 2. We shall be studying the bones of the palm for the whole day. 3. He is taking his examination in history now. 4. I was writing my report when she entered the library hall.

Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие предложения, определите времен- ную форму глагола-сказуемого.

1. Smooth or unstriated muscles contract without any volition.

2. Blood vessels are contracting when they respond to the temperature.

3. The bones of our body make up the skeleton. 4. They were conducting their experiment from five to seven. 5. Students will learn the framework of the chest in the first term. 6. We shall be studying the functions of the heart during the whole lesson.

Упражнение 4. Найдите модальные глаголы в следующих предложениях. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The lesson is over, you may go home. 2. The character of the joints distinguishes the degree of the motion which we can perform. 3. Smooth muscles can contract slowly. 4. We may divide animals into vertebrates

and invertebrates. 5. Student Petrov should stay at home as his leg still aches. 6. Future doctors must know human anatomy very well.

Упражнение 5. Заполните пропуски модальными глаголами can, must, may.

1. You ... come for consultations on physics any time from 5 to 8. 2. We ... know all the functions of the lungs. 3. ... I ask a question? 4. She ... come as she is ill. 5. Who ... describe the tones of the trunk? 6. The joints ... move by the contraction of muscles.

Упражнение 6. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите какую функцию выполняют слова that/those (см. ? 34 Грамматического спра- вочника).

1. The doctor says that he knows this patient. 2. The bones of the lower extremities articulate with the pelvic bones, those of the upper extremities extend from the shoulder girdle. 3. Through the centre of the vertebral column runs the canal that contains the spinal cord. 4. We liked that lecture very much. 5. The function of the liver is different from that of the spleen. 6. That was the book he wanted.

Упражнение 7. Прочтите следующие слова и сочетания слов. Переведи- те их.

b) a layer of muscles, 50 per cent of the total body weight, a characteristic feature of the cardiac muscle

Упражнение 8. Познакомьтесь со значениями данных ниже суффиксов: ar, ive, ous, ion и приставки en. Прочтите и переведите производные слова.

1. en- + основа прилагательного/существительного/, глагола = глагол: large большой - to enlarge увеличиваться); to close закрывать - to enclose окружать, ограничивать.

to enable, to encircle, to encourage, to enrage

2. -ar - суффикс прилагательных, обозначающих принадлежность, или существительных, обозначающих лицо: muscle мышца - muscular мышечный; to beg умолять - beggar нищий, попрошайка.

nuclear, liar, lobular, circular

3. глагол + -ive = прилагательное: to act действовать - active активный.

demonstrative, connective, effective

4. -ous (-eous, -ious) - суффикс прилагательных, имеющих значение «обладающий качеством», обозначенным основой: to continue продолжаться) - continuous непрерывный; glory слава - glorious великолепный.

various, dangerous, infectious

5. -ion (-ation, -tion, -sion, -ssion) - суффиксы существительных, обозначающих действие или процесс, состояние или качество, результат действия: to separate отделять - separation отделение.

foundation, observation, motion, fermentation, foundation, classification, decision, submission

Упражнение 9. Прочтите и переведите следующие однокоренные группы слов.

1. muscle, muscular, musculature, musculation; 2. to close, to enclose, close, closely, closed, closing; 3. to contract, contracted, contracting, contractile, contraction; 4. to vary, variant, various, variable, variation, variety; 5. to connect, connecting, connection, connective

Упражнение 12. Просмотрите текст А. Скажите, на сколько частей можно разделить текст и как можно озаглавить каждую часть.

Text A Types of Muscles

1. The word «muscle», according to one theory, comes from a Latin word that means «little mouse»: that is, when a man's muscles are contracting they look as if a little mouse runs about under his skin. According to another theory the word «muscle» comes from a Greek expression that means «to enclose», that is, layers of muscles enclose the body. We know that the muscles constitute approximately 50 per cent of the total body weight, slightly more in the average male than the female. Tendons, fasciae and the various organs themselves depend on the muscular system and the function of muscle cells.

2. There are three main types of muscular tissue that we identify and classify on the basis of structure and functions:

1) smooth or visceral muscle,

2) striated or skeletal muscle,

3) cardiac muscle.

3. Smooth muscles can contract slowly. They make up the walls of the internal organs such as those of the blood vessels, and the digestive tract. Since we identify the internal organs as viscera, we sometimes call smooth

Fig. 2. Types of muscles

muscles visceral muscles. The visceral muscles react relatively slowly to changes within the body and do so without the intervention of the will.

The walls of the blood vessels are contracting or expanding when they respond to certain chemicals in the blood or in response to the effect of temperature but we cannot deliberately cause them to lift our arm or open our mouth. For this reason, we may call them involuntary muscles. Smooth muscle tissue consists of long cells. Smooth muscle fibres are bound (связаны) into bundles by connective tissue which contain blood vessels and nerves.

4. Striated muscle tissue consists of large fibres in the form of bundles. Striated muscles are most necessary for manipulation of the bones of the skeleton. Those are the muscles necessary for walking, running, turning the head and so on. That's why we sometimes call them skeletal muscles. This type of muscle tissue includes the large muscle masses of the body, the muscles of the arms, legs, back etc.¹ It includes all those muscles which must react quickly to changes in the environment, i.e.² those that become active through an effort of will. For this reason, we call striated muscles voluntary muscles.

5. Cardiac (heart) muscle is, in a sense, a cross between the previous two. A characteristic feature of cardiac muscle is that fibres have neither a beginning nor an end. In other words, the heart is simply a huge net of muscles in which all elements are continuous with each other. Cardiac muscles («heart» - Greek) have the strength and force of contraction of the skeletal muscle. Cardiac muscle is under complete involuntary control. In that, it resembles visceral muscle.

Notes

1. etc. (Lat. et cetera) [it'setra] = and so on - и так далее

2. i.e. (Lat. id est) - читается: that is, namely - то есть

Упражнение 13. I) Прочтите и переведите текст А. Абзацы 4 и 5 переведите письменно. 2) Найдите в тексте А ответы на следующие вопросы и зачи- тайте их.

1. How many types of muscular tissue are there? 2. How do we sometimes call smooth muscles? 3. What is another name of striated

muscles? 4. What is the difference between the cardiac and skeletal muscles?

Упражнение 14. Подберите к латинским словам английские эквиваленты.

Упражнение 15. Подберите пары антонимов.

voluntary, beginning, separated, to include, the former, to exclude, the latter, connected, end, involuntary

Упражнение 16. Дайте синонимы к следующим словам и словосочетаниям.

injury, backbone, brain case, to be placed, to include

Упражнение 17. Прочтите следующие предложения и определите, какой частью речи являются выделенные слова, найдите их значение в словаре. Переведите предложения.

1. The word «muscle» means «little mouse» in Latin. 2. A positive test means the presence of bacteria in the blood. 3. Tendons, fasciae, various organs and the bones function by means of muscles. 4. . Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control. 5. The involuntary muscles control the beating of the heart. 6. Nerve impulses cause the muscle to contract. 7. We do not know the cause of his illness.

Упражнение 18. Прочтите предложения, поставив глаголы, данные в скобках, в нужное по смыслу время группы Continuous. Переведите предложения.

1. The students (to work) in the physical laboratory from 9 to half past 10 yesterday. 2. When he came they (to classify) the bones of the upper extremities. 3. The walls of the blood vessels (to expand) when they respond to certain chemicals in the blood. 4. We (to discuss) the characteristic features of cardiac muscles now.

Упражнение 19. Замените времена группы Indefinite временами группы Continuous, дополнив предложения обстоятельствами времени: now, at 11 o'clock, when you came, from ... to, all the day, где необходимо. Переведите предложения.

1. First-year students work in the anatomy museum. 2. He will make a report on the muscular system. 3. She prepared the text «Voluntary

and Involuntary Muscles» at home. 4. We translated 5 sentences from this text. 5. Last Monday we had a practical lesson on the structure and functions of smooth muscles.

Упражнение 20. Ответьте на вопросы по данному образцу:

Образец: Why can't you go home? (to attend the lecture)

I cannot go home, because I must attend the lecture. 1. Why can't you consult a doctor? (to go to the Institute) 2. Why can't you give me your book? (to return it to the library) 3. Why can't she finish her test? (to prepare for the examination)

Упражнение 21. Переведите следующие предложения с модальными глаголами: can, may.

1. The joints between bones can move more or less easily. 2. In the ear we can only see the external ear and the external passage. 3. We may call the humerus, armbone, but there is no special name for radius. 4. We may use this drug three times a day.

Упражнение 22. Переведите следующие предложения, определите функции слов that (those).

1. The special feature of that textbook on anatomy is that it has many pictures. 2. One of the most interesting problems in medicine is that of pathogenesis. 3. Note that in the middle the bone consists of very compact tissue. 4. Will you name the diseases that are not infectious? 5. Metabolic diseases are those in which certain physiological processes become disturbed.

Упражнение 23. Переведите следующие предложения на английский язык.

1. По структуре и функции мышцы можно разделить на три группы. 2. Гладкие мышцы сокращаются непроизвольно. 3. Соединитель- ная ткань гладких мышц включает нервы и кровеносные сосуды. 4. Поперечно-полосатые или скелетные мышцы реагируют на изменения в окружающей среде. 5. Волокна сердечной мышцы непрерывны.

Часть II

Слова к части II

produce [prs'djuus] v производить, uterus ['juutsrss] п матка

образовывать, давать elongate ['elongeit] v удлинять(ся)

consist [ksn'sist] v (of) состоять (из) vary ['vesri] v изменять(ся), варьи- tongue [tATj] n язык ровать

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Прочтите следующие слова в единственном и множествен- ном числе:

Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие предложения со словосочетаниями as well (as).

1. Smooth muscles form the coat of some internal organs as well as a part of the capsule of the spleen. 2. Smooth muscles form the coat of some internal organs and a part of the capsule of the spleen as well. 3. You are to know physiology as well as anatomy.

Упражнение 3. Просмотрите текст В (время - 10 мин). 1) Скажите, каково строение поперечно-полосатых и гладких мышечных тканей. 2) Найдите предложения, где употребляются: а) глаголы-сказуемые в форме Continuous; б) слова that (those). 3) Переведите эти предложения.

Text В

Skeletal and Smooth Muscles

Muscles are the active part of the motor apparatus: their contractions are producing various movements, when they are active. Functionally we divide all muscles into two groups: voluntary and involuntary muscles.

Voluntary muscles consist of striated muscle tissue and contract by the will of the man. This group includes all the muscles of the head,

trunk and extremities, i.e., the skeletal muscles, as well as those of some internal organs (tongue, larynx, etc.). The skeletal muscles are the organs of the muscular system. There are more than 400 skeletal muscles in the human organism: in adults they make up about two-fifths of the total body weight. Each skeletal muscle has an arterial, venous, lymphatic and nervous supply. Muscles must always act in groups.

Skeletal muscles are complex in structure. They consist of muscle fibres of different length (up to 12 cm); the fibres are usually parallel to each other and are united (соединены) in bundles. Each muscle contains many such bundles. There are tendons at the ends of muscles by means of which they are bound (связаны) to bones.

Smooth muscles form the muscular coat of internal organs such as esophagus, stomach and intestines, bladder, uterus and so on. They also form the part of the capsule and the trabeculae of the spleen; they are present as single cells or as little cylindrical bundles of cells in the skin. They also form the walls of arteries, veins and some of the larger lymphatics. Smooth muscles are not rich in blood vessels, as are striated muscles. A smooth muscle is capable of spontaneous contraction and can contract in two ways. Firstly, individual cells may contract completely and secondly, a wave of contractions may pass from one end of the muscle to the other. Smooth muscle cells are usually elongated cells. In the skin and intestines they are long and thin, but in the arteries they are short and thick. They vary in length from 12-15 mm in small blood vessels to 0.5 mm in the human uterus but their average length in an organ such as the intestine is about 200 mm. These cells have an oval nucleus that encloses nucleoli, and when the cell is contracting the nucleus may become folded or twisted.

Muscles have both motor and sensory nerve fibres. Impulses (signals) about the state of the muscle reach the brain along the sensory fibres. The nerve impulses which cause the muscle to contract come from the brain along the motor fibres. Injury to the nerves which innervate muscles causes disturbances in voluntary movements (muscular paralysis).

Упражнение 5. Прочтите каждое суждение. Найдите в тексте предложения, более полно выражающие мысль данного суждения, и прочтите их.

1. The skeletal muscles are the organs of muscles system. 2. Skeletal muscles are complex in structure. 3. Smooth muscles form the muscular coat of internal organs, blood vessels and skin. 4. Smooth muscles are capable of contraction. 5. Smooth muscle cells have some characteristic features. 6. Muscles have nerve fibres.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 2

Упражнение 1. Укажите, в каких предложениях глагол стоит в форме Con- tinuous.

1. The muscles are contracting under stimulation. 2. Striated muscle tissue consists of large fibres. 3. The walls of the blood vessels are contracting or expanding in response to a stimulus. 4. Striated muscles are necessary for manipulating the bones of the skeleton.

(Ответ: 1, 3. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 11 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Укажите и переведите предложения с модальными глаголами.

1. The muscles which we can control are called the voluntary muscles. 2. We do not control smooth and cardiac muscles. 3. Each type of muscles must perform definite functions. 4. Involuntary muscles control all the processes of the body. 5. We may divide all muscles into two groups.

(Ответ: 1, 3, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 17 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Укажите, в каких предложениях слово that переводится а) «что»; б) «который»; в) замещает существительное.

1. We call the muscles that form internal organs are called visceral muscles. 2. We know that the cardiac muscle forms the heart. 3. The structure of smooth muscles differs from that of cardiac muscles.

(Ответ: a) 2; 6) 1; в) 3. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 34 Грамматического справочника.)

LESSON THREE

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

1. Времена группы Perfect (Active Voice) (? 12)

2. Степени сравнения прилагательных (? 3)

3. Функции и перевод слов because, because of (? 37)

Часть I

Слова к части I

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Назовите основные формы следующих глаголов.

to keep, to flow, to mean, to think, to come, to give

Упражнение 2. Найдите в каждом ряду глагол во временах группы Perfect (см. таблицу в ? 12 Грамматического справочника).

1. called; has called; is calling; 2. had thought; think; is thought; 3. shall have come; came; comes; 4. have given; gave; will give; 5. distinguish; has distinguished; distinguishes

Упражнение 3. Определите время и форму глагола-сказуемого в следующих предложениях.

1. We have just learned the general structure of the body. 2. The bones of the skull protect the brain structure from injury. 3. All the bones of the body are of different types. 4. Muscles are constantly assisting in the body movement. 5. The doctor had already examined the girl's heart when the professor came in. 6. We shall have got the books in anatomy by tomorrow morning.

Упражнение 4. Прочтите следующие группы слов. Найдите прилагательные в сравнительной и превосходной степени.

more flexible bony tissue, lower arm, less compact bone, inner portion, the longest bone, the most difficult test

Упражнение 5. Прочтите и переведите следующие предложения; опреде- лите, какую функцию выполняют слова because и because of.

1. Penicillin is an important antibiotic because of its antiseptic properties. 2. Many infectious diseases are dangerous because it is difficult to treat them. 3. The false ribs received this name because they join the seventh rib at the point before they reach the sternum. 4. Acetabulum got its name because of its resemblance to a rounded cup which the Romans used for acetum.

Упражнение 6. Прочтите следующие слова и переведите их.

Упражнение 7. Отработайте чтение следующих предложений.

Упражнение 8. Запомните значения нижеприведенных суффиксов. Про- чтите и переведите производные слова.

1. прилагательное + -гу = наречие: gradual постепенный - gradually постепенно.

anatomically, functionally, finally, freshly

2. -ist - встречается в существительных, обозначающих людей по профессии, занятию, убеждениям.

ecologist, chemist, anatomist, physiologist

3. -ate [eit] - суффикс глагола.

to communicate, to circulate, to separate, to graduate

4. -ate [it] (-ete, -ite, -ute) - суффикс прилагательных и существительных.

graduate, delegate, ultimate, accurate, complete, minute

5. -ward (s) - встречается в прилагательных, наречиях, предлогах, обозначая направление.

towards, upward, downwards, eastward, inward, backward, forward

Упражнение 9. Прочтите и переведите следующие гнезда слов.

1. pure, impure, purity, impurity; 2. to weigh, weight, weightless, weighty; 3. to circulate, circulatory, circulation; 4. artery, arterial, arteri-ole, arteriosclerosis; 5. to separate, separately, separation; 6. to nourish, nourishment

Упражнение 10. Прочтите и переведите следующие словосочетания.

molecular weight, to put on (to gain) weight, to lose weight, systemic circulation, circulating system, poor circulation, venous pulse blood, thoracic cavity

Упражнение 11. Просмотрите текст А. Разделите текст на 4 части и выразите основную мысль каждой из них.

Text A

The Circulatory (Cardiovascular) System

1. The cardiovascular system is the system of blood circulation. By the cardiovascular system we mean the heart, the arteries, the veins and the capillaries of the human body.

2. The centre of the circulatory system is the heart. The human heart is a cone-shaped organ, about 5 inches¹ long and 3 1/2 inches broad. It weighs about 10 ounces² in the adult male, 6 ounces in the female. It lies in the thoracic cavity, just behind the breastbone and between the lungs. The heart is a hollow muscle which has four chambers. The right heart consists of an upper chamber, the atrium or the auricle and a lower chamber, the ventricle. Between these two chambers is a one-way valve, the tricuspid valve. The left heart has two chambers, but the valve that separates its chambers we call the mitral valve. Although the heart is a unit, anatomically and functionally, we may think of it as of two pumps - the «right heart» and the «left heart». The right heart receives blood from the veins and pumps it into the lungs by way of the lesser circulatory system. In the lungs the blood receives oxygen. Then it moves into the left heart. From the left heart the well-oxygenated blood moves into a large artery, the aorta. The blood returns to the heart by means of the veins. The walls of the capillaries are so thin that the dissolved nourishment that has come from the digestive system and the oxygen that has come from the lungs can pass through them into the tissues of the body and so nourish it. The capillaries form a close network all over the body. They gradually join together and get larger, and become veins.

Left

pulmonary artery Pulmonary artery

Left atrium

Mitral valve Aortic valve Left ventricle Interventricular septum

Right ventricle

Fig. 3. Diagram of the heart

3. Blood vessels that receive blood from the ventricle and lead it away from the heart and towards other organs are arteries («air duct» - Greek). The vessels received this name because the early anatomists assumed that they had been empty in dead persons and had carried air.The artery that takes up the blood from the right ventricle and carries it to the lungs is the pulmonary artery («lungs» - Latin). The pulmonary artery divides in two - one branch leads to the right lung, the other - to the left. The arteries continue to divide and subdivide and form smaller and smaller vessels with thinner and thinner walls. The smallest arteries are the arterioles and these finally divide into capillaries («hairlike» - Latin). We name them so because of their fineness, though actually they are much finer than hairs.

4. Gradually the capillaries begin to join into larger vessels. Such larger blood vessels that carry blood to the heart from the organs are the veins. The smallest of these are the venules.

5. The particular vein into which the capillaries and venules of the lungs finally unite is the pulmonary vein. The pulmonary vein carries the freshly oxygenated blood to the left auricle. The pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein make up the pulmonary circulation.

6. The contraction of the left ventricle forces the blood through a one-way valve into the aorta («to lift up» - Greek). The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It moves upward at first (the ascending aorta), but then arches over dorsally (the arch of the aorta). In its downward course, the aorta passes through the diaphragm.

7. The blood is a red fluid, which coagulates when escapes from a blood vessel. It consists of a colourless fluid, plasma or serum, and many millions of minute bodies, the corpuscles.

1. inch (сокр. in.) = 2.54 cm (centimetres)

2. ounce (сокр. oz.) = 28.33 g (grammes)

Упражнение 12. Подберите к латинским словам английские эквиваленты.

Упражнение 13. Подберите пары синонимов.

substance, to supply, to nourish, because of, because, minute, tiny, to provide, to obtain, due to, fine, as, matter, to feed

Упражнение 14. Подберите пары антонимов.

larger, upward, ascending, colourless, thick, colourful, thin, descending, downward, smaller

Упражнение 15. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите, какими частями речи являются выделенные слова.

1. The number and even nature of the clots in the veins and arteries differ according to their size. 2. Under the microscope we can see the membrane which consists of a number of separate cells. 3. Blood includes minute bodies, which give the blood its colour. 4. The heart makes 70-80 contractions a minute.

Упражнение 16. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите времен- ную форму глагола-сказуемого.

1. The heart is beating in the experimental animals even when we destroy the nerve supply. 2. The vena cava brings deoxygenated blood which has passed through the body to the right atrium. 3. During diastole, the atrium of the heart is filling with blood from the venae cavae and the pulmonary vein. 4. We were discussing the anatomy of the heart at the English lesson yesterday. 5. We shall still be working at this problem for another week. 6. The teacher corrected the tests which the students had written the day before.

Упражнение 17. Поставьте прилагательные в следующих предложениях в сравнительную или превосходную степень.

1. The veins are (large) than capillaries. 2. The aorta is the (large) artery which distributes the blood throughout the body. 3. I know the

structure of the heart (good) than that of the lungs. 4. Anatomy is (difficult) subject for me. 5. The human heart weighs (little) than a pound.

Упражнение 18. Найдите в каждой колонке прилагательное в сравнительной степени.

Упражнение 19. Переведите следующие предложения, выбрав подходящее по смыслу слово в скобках.

1. The capillaries got their names (because, because of) they resemble hairs. 2. The blood reaches the arteries (because, because of) the contraction of the heart. 3. The two blood streams do not readily mix in the ventricle (because, because of) the muscular meshwork within its cavity. 4. (Because, because of) arteries carry blood away from the heart, they must be strong enough to withstand the high pressure of the pumping action of the heart. 5. If we stimulate the nerve in the ear by electricity, the ear becomes blanched (because, because of) the arteries contract.

Упражнение 20. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Сердечно-сосудистая система включает сердце, артерии, вены и капилляры. 2. Кровь возвращается к сердцу по венам (посредством вен). 3. Правая и левая части сердца состоят из двух камер: предсердия и желудочка. 4. При сокращении левого желудочка кровь проталкивается в аорту. 5. Стенки капилляров такие тонкие, что питательные вещества и кислород проходят через них в ткани.

Упражнение 21. Опишите сердечно-сосудистую систему, используя рис. 3.

~~Часть II~~ Слова к части II

close [klous] а близкий, закрытый tiny ['taini] а очень маленький, кро- constitute ['konstitjut] v образовышечный

вать, составлять dilate [dai'leit] v расширять(ся)

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите следующие словосочетания.

1. on the one side, on the other side, on the opposite side; 2. due to, in due time, with due respect; 3. according to the rule

Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите какой частью речи являются выделенные слова.

1. The walls of the arteries and veins are thicker than those of the capillaries. The former are less permeable for fluid. 2. There are no blood capillaries in certain parts of the body. These are the epidermis, epithelium and some others. 3. We call the valve that separates the chambers, the atrium and the ventricle the mitral valve. 4. Both the superior and inferior venae cavae empty into the right atrium. Both carry venous blood.

Упражнение 3. Просмотрите текст В (время 10 мин). 1) Скажите, что является предметом обсуждения. 2) Найдите предложения, где употребляются: а) глаголы-сказуемые во времени Perfect; б) прилагательные в сравнительной и превосходной степени; в) слова because, because of. 2) Переведите эти предложения.

Text В

Almost all parts of the body are vascular. Minute and very close-set canals, which have opened into one another traverse them and constitute a small-meshed network. The canals or rather tubes have distinct but very delicate walls. The walls contain a membrane that includes a number of thin epithelial cells, which are bound (связаны) together at their edges. There is a small oval nucleus in each of these cells. These tubes are the blood capillaries. They vary in diameter from 7 to 12 μηι. But there are certain parts of the body in which these blood capillaries

have been absent. These are the epidermis and epithelium, the nails and hairs, the substance of the teeth and the transparent cornea of the eye.

Tiny rings of muscles, precapillary sphincters, regulate the flow of blood into capillaries. The question of nervous control of the precapillary sphincters still remains the subject of the study.

The capillary tubes contain the red fluid, blood. They join on opposite sides and form larger tubes, with thicker walls, which are the smallest arteries on the one side, and veins, on the other. These again join on to larger arteries and veins, which ultimately communicate by a few principal arterial and venous trunks with the heart. The mere fact that the walls of these vessels are thicker than those of the capillaries constitutes an important difference between the capillaries and the small arteries and veins.

The most important difference between these vessels and the capillaries, however, is that their walls are not only thicker, but also more complex. They have got several coats, one, at least, of which has been muscular. The number and even nature of these coats differ according to the size because the vessels are not the same in the veins as in arteries, though the smallest veins and arteries resemble each other.

The venous system starts with the venules into which the capillaries empty. Small veins join and form larger ones. The larger veins join and form the venae cavae. The superior vena cava collects the blood from the head, neck, arms, and thorax, and the inferior vena cava, from the legs and abdomen. Both empty into the right atrium.

Pressure in the venous system is low. In the vein at the level of the heart the pressure would be more than 5-7 mm Hg.¹ It is evident that in the erect position blood that returns to the heart from the feet has to overcome the force of gravity through a distance of about 4 ft.² Veins, probably because of the low blood pressure and the absence of pulse waves, are in comparison to arteries, relatively immune to disease. Phlebitis sometimes occurs; this is the formaiton of blood clots within veins because of some infectious process in their walls.

Notes

Упражнение 5. Найдите в тексте предложения, более полно выражающие мысль каждого данного суждения, и прочтите их.

1. The capillaries form a small-meshed network. 2. The blood capillaries are absent in some parts of the body. 3. There are some differences

¹ 5-7 mm Hg = 5-7 millimeters of Mercury

² 4 ft = 4 feet (foot = 30.5 centimetres)

between the veins, arteries and capillaries. 4. The veins are more immune to diseases than the arteries. 5. Phlebitis is due to some infection.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 3 Упражнение 1. Укажите, где глагол to have не переводится.

1. We have attended English lessons since September. 2. The heart is a hollow organ and has four chambers. 3. I have never been to Yaroslavl. 4. The capillaries have thin walls.

(Ответ: 1, 3. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 12 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Переведите прилагательные и определите их степень сравнения.

1. slightest; 2. most coloured; 3. more delicate; 4. more permeable; 5. less infectious; 6. normal; 7. much more complex; 8. less transparent; 9. important; 10. much thicker; 11. much lower

(Ответ: положительная степень - 6, 9; сравнительная степень -

3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11; превосходная степень - 1, 2. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 3 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Укажите, в каких предложениях слово because переводится «так как», «потому что». Переведите эти предложения на русский язык.

1. The heart pumps about five litres of blood in one minute because it beats 60-80 times a minute and ejects about 130 cubic centimetres of blood at each beat. 2. The woman's heart beats 6 or 8 times a minute faster than that of the man because of the smaller size of her heart. 3. The mouse's heart flutters at 500 beats per minute because of its tiny size.

4. The frog's heart beats 30 times per minute in warm weather because cold-blooded animals live at a much lower level of internal chemical activity.

(Ответ: 1, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 37 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 4. Определите, в каких предложениях выделенное слово является сказуемым. Переведите эти предложения.

1. The heart beats 72 times a minute. 2. The heart beats were weak. 3. The heart pumps the blood through the circulatory system. 4. The

heart is a pump that forces the blood through the circulatory system. 5. Rest is necessary after hard work. 6. The dark glasses rest my eyes.

(Ответ: 1, 3, 6. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 10 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 5. Переведите следующие предложения.

1. They obtained good results. 2. The fluid reduces friction which results from the heart movement. 3. A temperature decrease results in a slower heart rate. 4. We began our work after due consideration. 5. His sudden weakness was due to anaemia.

LESSON FOUR

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Времена группы Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect (Passive Voice) (? 14)

2. Функции и перевод слова one (ones) (? 36)

3. Существительные в функции определения (? 1)

Часть I

Слова к части I

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Прочтите следующие пары предложений и переведите их на русский язык.

1. We call three major types of blood vessels arteries, veins and capillaries. - Smaller branches of arteries are called arterioles. 2. The heart pumps the blood into the lung by circulatory system. - From the left heart the blood is pumped into the aorta. 3. Pulmonary artery divides into two branches. - The upper extremity is divided into the shoulder, the upper arm, the forearm and the hand. 4. The right carotid artery distributes blood to all parts of the right side of the neck, face, head and brain. - The blood from the aorta is distributed throughout the body.

Упражнение 2. Прочтите следующие предложения. Определите время и залог сказуемого. Переведите предложения.

1. These textbooks will be distributed among all the students of our group. 2. Harvey collected ideas of the circulation of blood which until then had been studied but not confirmed by experiments. 3. Lymph passes through the lymphatic glands which act as filters and keep back any poisonous material, such as germs that has been brought to them in the lymph. 4. Those who have been in close contact with the infected patients must be quarantined for a time. 5. The heart muscle is nourished by coronary arteries. 6. When the left ventricle is contracting its contained blood is being forced into the aortic artery.

Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения. Определите какую функцию выполняет слово one (ones).

1. There are four chambers in the heart: two smaller ones, the auricles, and two larger ones, the ventricles. 2. One often describes the heart as consisting of a base and an apex. 3. Harvey showed that there was a double channel: in one set of vessels - the arteries, away from the heart; in another set - the veins to the heart. 4. One must remember that air is at all times full of bacteria.

Упражнение 4. Прочтите следующие предложения. Замените выделенные существительные словами-заменителями one (ones). Переведите предложения.

1. Here are some books, which book do you want? 2. This text is very difficult to translate without a dictionary; give me another text. 3. My watch is not working well. I must buy a new watch. 4. These exercises are much easier than the exercises we translated at the last lesson.

Упражнение 5. Переведите следующие словосочетания. Назовите суще- ствительные, выполняющие функцию (левого) определения.

blood circulation, one-way valve, cone-shaped organ, striated muscle tissue, smooth muscle cells, heart valves action, heart beat rate, tissue oxygen supply, heart blood output

Упражнение 6. Переведите предложения, содержащие группы существи- тельных. Помните, что основное слово стоит последним в ряду слов и перед ним нет ни артикля, ни предлога.

1. The blood-pressure measurement method is very simple. 2. The heart wall is composed of two layers. 3. The arterioles divide into smaller tissue capillaries which are near the body cells. 4. In this picture you can see the blood vessel size differences. 5. Smooth muscle tissue predominates in the small arteries and elastic tissue - in the large arteries.

Упражнение 7. Прочтите следующие слова. Переведите их.

Упражнение 8. Напишите данные слова в 3 столбика в соответствии с чтением суффикса -ed как [t], [d], [id] и переведите их.

removed, exhaled, distinguished, involved, inhaled, circulated, diffused, breathed, called, produced, included, provided, connected

Упражнение 9. Отработайте чтение 4-го абзаца текста А.

Упражнение 10. Познакомьтесь с разными значениями суффикса -ing. Переведите производные слова.

1. глагол + -ing = существительное: to read читать - reading чтение.

feeling, breathing, functioning (of the system), (the) sustaining (of life)

2. -ing - встречается в прилагательных, развившихся из причастий настоящего времени: healing целебный.

striking, stunning, demanding, misleading, understanding

Упражнение 11. Прочтите и переведите данные гнезда слов.

1. to respire, respiration, expiration, inspiration, respiratory, inspiratory; 2. to produce, product, production, productive, producing; 3. to in-

hale, inhalation, to exhale, exhaled, exhaling; 4. breath, to breathe, breathing, breathless, breathlessness; 5. to pass, passage, passing, passage-way.

Упражнение 12. Переведите следующие словосочетания.

expiratory centre, respiratory mechanism, waste product, metabolic product, the air conducting passage-ways, to inhale (breathe in) oxygen, to exhale carbon dioxide, surrounding tissues

Упражнение 13. Прочтите данные группы слов и переведите их.

1. through, throughout, though, although; 2. case, cause, course; 3. some, same, sum; 4. since, science

Упражнение 14. Просмотрите текст А. Назовите тему и основные положения текста.

Text A The respiratory system

1. Respiration occurs in all living things, both plants and animals.The рroper function of this system is perhaps the most important one in the sustaining of life. Interruption of breathing for only a few minutes by suffocation or strangulation causes death. In the human organism, respiration consists of those processes by which the body cells and tissues make use of oxygen and by which carbon dioxide or the waste products of respiration are removed.

2. Inhaled air contains about 20 per cent oxygen and four hundredths of one per cent carbon dioxide. Exhaled air consists of approximately 16 per cent oxygen and 4 per cent carbon dioxide. Nitrogen, which makes up about 79 per cent of the atmosphere, is not involved in the breathing process. When air is inhaled into the lungs, a portion of the oxygen is passing into the blood and is being circulated through the body. At the same time, carbon dioxide is being diffused out of the blood into the lungs and exhaled.

3. Air is breathed through either the mouth or nose into the oral cavity, or pharynx. It then passes through the voice box, or larynx, into the windpipe, or trachea. The trachea ultimately divides into two smaller tubes, bronchi, one is going to each lung. The bronchi divide into tiny passage-ways that are named bronchioles, which lead directly to minute air sacs, or alveoli. The exchange of life-giving gases is effected through the walls of the alveoli.

5. Other structures which are connected with the system include: the laryngeal tonsils, which are masses of tissue in the nasopharynx or posterior portions of the nasal passages (adenoids are infected or diseased laryngeal tonsils); the sinuses, cavities in the bones in the front part of the skull that provide resonance to the voice, and the pleura, a doublewalled membrane which surrounds the lungs.

6. When the diaphragm contracts and flattens, it contributes to the extension of the vertical diameter of the

thoracic cavity. Air is constantly renewing in the lungs. The capacity of the air passages is increasing. Any muscular effort, e.g. even standing up, increases the number of respirations.

Упражнение 15. 1) Прочтите и переведите текст А. Абзацы 5 и 6 переведите письменно. 2) Найдите в тексте А ответы на следующие вопросы и зачитайте их.

1. What gases are involved in breathing? 2. What parts of the respiratory system does the air pass on its way to the alveoli? 3. What are the other structures connected with the system? 4. Does the diaphragm contribute to the extension of the vertical diameter of the thoracic

cavity? 5. Any muscular effort increases the number of respirations, doesn't it?

3) Составьте план текста А.

Упражнение 16. Подберите к латинским словам английские эквиваленты.

Упражнение 17. Подберите пары синонимов.

to consist of, to take part in, fine, air passage, to occur, respiratory tract, to happen, minute, to be involved in, to be made of

Упражнение 18. Образуйте пары антонимов к данным словам, используя приставку ех-, и переведите их.

to inhale, inspiration, to include

Упражнение 19. Образуйте форму множественного числа от данных латинских слов.

trachea, broncus, alveolus, cilium, pleura

Упражнение 20. Выберите верный перевод выделенных слов.

1. Each lung is surrounded by a double-folded membrane, the pleura. (окружает, окружило, окружено) 2. The tonsils are located in the oropharynx. (были расположены, расположат, расположены) 3. Numerous questions were being discussed at the lesson. (обсуждались, обсуждают, будут обсуждены) 4. The concept of respiration was based directly upon the work of Lavoisier. (была основана, основывают, основана) 5. The total number of alveoli in the lung has been estimated as 750 millions. (насчитывают, насчитали, насчитал)

Упражнение 21. Переведите следующие предложения. Запомните перевод данных глаголов, требующих после себя определенных предлогов.

to refer to, to speak of, to take care of, to send for, to wait for, to think of

1. Respiration is usually thought of as the mechanical process of breathing. 2. Disease germs are sometimes referred to as bugs. 3. Those patients have been taken care of by the nurses. 4. By the discovery of

tubercule bacillus Robert Koch had been already much spoken about. 5. This lecture has long been waited for.

Упражнение 22. Переведите предложения, используя разные способы перевода страдательного залога.

1. During the experiment all the work was being done automatically. 2. The lungs are separated from other organs of the body in a movable rigid-box - the chest cavity. 3. The boy with pneumonia was given necessary treatment. 4. In this journal, the method of examination of bronchi has been spoken of. 5. Air is breathed into the lungs 20 times a minute all our lives. 6. Foreign substances in the blood stream are known as emboli.

Упражнение 23. Переведите предложения, определите, где слово one не переводится.

1. One must consider respiration essentially as exchange of gases - one in the lungs and one in the tissues. 2. Pneumonia may be caused by one of the different kinds of bacteria (germs), pneumococcus. 3. The thoracic cavity that consists of ribs and muscles is the one for heart, lungs and other viscera. 4. The lungs are built of alveoli and through the bronchi, larynx, pharynx, mouth cavity and nasal one they expire carbon dioxide (CO₂) and inspire oxygen. 5. In the cross-sections one can see how the lungs are separated from the chest wall by the pleura.

Упражнение 24. Переведите следующие словосочетания.

1. life-giving gas, life-giving gas exchange; 2. tissue masses, tissue masses structures; 3. respiration waste products, respiration waste products removal; 4. carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide exhalation; 5. doublewalled membrane, double-walled lung membrane; 6. blood capillaries, blood capillaries dense network; 7. thoracic cavity volume, thoracic cavity volume increase; 8. body cell oxygen, body cell oxygen supply.

Упражнение 25. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Дыхание свойственно всему живому - как животным, так и растениям. 2. В процессе дыхания ткани поглощают кислород, а углекислый газ выводится из организма. 3. Воздух, который мы вдыхаем, содержит около 20% кислорода. 4. Бронхи делятся на мелкие воздухоносные пути, называемые бронхиолами. 5. Прекращение дыхания даже на несколько минут приводит к смерти.

~~Часть II~~ Слова к части II

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Прочтите и переведите следующие слова. Проверьте себя по словарю.

maximum, production, pleural, passively, position, elasticity, tract, pulmonary, ventilation

Упражнение 2. Подберите пары синонимов.

interior, per minute, to take place, because, to occur, since, internal, each minute, a minute

Упражнение 3. Образуйте от данных слов антонимы, используя приставки ех-, un-, in-.

interior, decrease, inspiratory, important

Упражнение 4. Прочтите и запомните перевод слов rest, activity.

rest 1. остаток: the rest of the students, the rest of blood, for the rest в остальном; 2. покой: at rest в состоянии покоя, a resthome дом отдыха

activity 1. неисчисл. деятельность: respiratory activity; активность: political activity of the masses; 2. обычн. pl. деятельность (в опред. области): his social (political) activities

Упражнение 5. Прочтите и запомните следующие устойчивые словосоче- тания с предлогом at.

at all вообще, совсем at rest в состоянии покоя at first сначала at times временами, иногда

at last наконец at the same time в то же самое время

at least no крайней (меньшей) мере

Упражнение 6. Просмотрите текст В (время 10 мин). 1) Скажите, на сколько частей можно разделить текст. 2) Найдите предложения, где употребля- ются: а) глаголы-сказуемые в Passive Voice; б) слово one (ones); в) существительные в функции определения. 3) Переведите эти предложения.

Text В Respiration

The term «respiration» means the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) which takes place between the living organism and the environment. One must consider that in higher organisms this exchange takes place at several different levels. An initial exchange must occur between the air in the lungs, from which the oxygen is being continually taken up and into which carbon dioxide is being continually poured, and the external air. This is the process of external respiration.

The composition of the air inside the lungs is different from that of the air which we inhale. The content of alveolar air is very constant, especially the one of carbon dioxide, the partial pressure of which is normally 40 mm of mercury. This constancy is the result of a self-regulating mechanism by which the respiratory activity is governed by the amount of carbon dioxide which has been eliminated from the organism.

The exchange of gases varies according to the size and activity of the organism. In man at rest the absorption of oxygen reaches about 0.25 litre a minute and the elimination of carbon dioxide 0.2 litre. At a time of maximum muscular activity, the consumption of oxygen and the production of carbon dioxide may both exceed 4 litres a minute.

The movement of air into the lungs is brought about by an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity with the action of the respiratory muscles. The lungs follow this movement passively. Some of the inspiratory muscles have a fixed point on the ribs; when the ribs are being raised the muscles increase the anteroposterior and transverse diameters of the thoracic cavity (costal respiration). Another important muscle is the diaphragm, a thin dome-shaped «sheet», which closes the lower part of the thorax and separates it from the abdomen. The diaphragm contracts and flattens; it contributes in this way to the extension of the vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity and raises the ribs (abdominal respiration). At the time of expiration, the thorax returns to its initial

position, and air is expelled through the same tracts that had been used by fresh air during inspiration.

In an individual at rest the number of inspirations per minute is 10 to 15; the pulmonary ventilation, or the volume of air which passes through the respiratory system each minute, is about 6 litres per minute. During intense muscular activity the inspiration rate may rise to 50 and the ventilation to 150 litres or more per minute.

Упражнение 8. Прочтите данные суждения. Найдите в тексте предложения, более полно выражающие мысль этих суждений.

1. The term «respiration» means the exchange of gases. 2. An initial exchange between the air in the lungs and the external air is called external respiration. 3. The exchange of gases varies according to the size and activity of the organism. 4. The content of alveolar air is very constant. 5. The diaphragm contracts and flattens.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 4

Упражнение 1. Переведите предложения с глаголом-сказуемым в страда- тельном залоге.

1. Oxygen is being continually taken up from the lungs. 2. The exchange of gases varies according to the size and activity of the organism.

3. Some of the respiratory muscles have a fixed point on the ribs. 4. Air is expelled through the tracts that have been used by fresh air during inspiration. 5. The heart wall is composed of two layers.

(Ответ: 1, 4, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 14 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Прочтите предложения, где слово one - числительное. Переведите эти предложения.

1. The lungs are two in number and one of them is in the right half of the thoracic cavity. 2. One must know that smoking is harmful. 3. The right lung is separated from the left one by the mediastinal septum.

4. There is one movable bone in the skull. 5. The right and left pleural cavities are serous sacs with visceral layers and parietal ones.

(Ответ: 1, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 36 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Опишите органы дыхания, используя рис. 4.

LESSON FIVE

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Часть I

Слова к части I

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Заполните пропуски неопределенными местоимениями some, any, по и их производными.

1. Are there ... grammar exercises in this textbook? 2. Give the patient ... analgetic. 3. Can ... show me the way to the Rectorate? 4. ... was allowed to visit the boy because of the quarantine. 5. My eyeglasses are bad, I can't see ... now. 6. You may ask ... to help you.

Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие предложения с неопределенными местоимениями some, any, по и их производными.

1. The diseases of the respiratory system depend in some way on its anatomy and functions. 2. The laws of disease are as definite and wellknown as those of any other biological process. 3. The earliest symptoms of bronchitis must be known to everyone. 4. Anybody may catch a respiratory disease at some time or other. 5. No student has been absent from the lecture today.

Упражнение 3. В следующих предложениях определите придаточные предложения: определительные, дополнительные и обстоятельственные. Переведите предложения.

1. While oxygen is being taken into the blood, carbonic acid gas, or carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the lungs and is breathed out. 2. If you hold your breath, the carbon dioxide immediately begins to accumulate in the blood. 3. The tonsils can be removed in later life, provided the infection seems severe. 4. The right lung that is slightly larger of the two is divided into three lobes. 5. The teacher explains that the diaphragm contracts and descends with each inspiration. 6. When the lungs are full, the diaphragm relaxes.

Упражнение 4. Переведите предложения согласно образцу; обратите внимание на перевод местоимения it.

Образец: Water is liquid. Вода - жидкость.

It is necessary for life. Она необходима для жизни. It is necessary for health to drink distilled water. Для здоровья необходимо пить дистиллированную воду.

1. Medical students study anatomy. It is difficult for them. It is difficult for them to study it. 2. The amount of air which the body needs varies from time to time. It is necessary for the body. It is necessary for the body to regulate it. 3. Blood is a red fluid. It is easy to see it when it escapes from a blood vessel. 4. Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. It is dangerous for life. It is easy to diagnose it. 5. The larynx contains the vocal cords. It is surrounded by pieces of cartilage for support. It is possible to examine it with special instruments.

Упражнение 5. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите, в каких предложениях слово it не переводится.

1. It is possible to remove one lobe of the lung without any damage to the rest. 2. The upper part of the respiratory system conducts air and produces the voice; it consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi. 3. It is known that internal respiration is the exchange of gases. 4. Cold on the surface of the body can change the amount of blood in the nose or lungs when it is needed there. 5. It is by means of the organs of respiration that air is taken into the lungs and oxygen is given to the blood.

Упражнение 6. Прочтите следующие слова. Переведите их.

Упражнение 7. Отработайте чтение следующих предложений:

Упражнение 8. Запомните значение суффикса -ic. Образуйте прилагательные от следующих существительных.

-ic (-ical) образует от основ существительных относительные прилагательные, которые обозначают принадлежность или признак: pelvis - pelvic; physiology - physiological, physiologic.

history, chemistry, mechanism, toxicity, spleen

Упражнение 9. Прочтите и переведите следующие гнезда слов.

1. to bound, boundless, boundary; 2. to weigh, weight, weighing, weighed; 3. wide, to widen, width, widely; 4. long, length, to lengthen

Упражнение 10. Прочтите и переведите следующие словосочетания.

pelvic girdle, specific (atomic, molecular) weight, to refer a patient to a specialist, reference book, a wide variety of

Упражнение 11. Просмотрите текст А и скажите, какие органы брюшной полости описаны в данном тексте.

Text A The Abdomen

The abdomen is the largest cavity of the body. It is bounded above by the thorax or chest and below by two pelvic bones which meet in front. From the cavity of the thorax it is separated by the great muscle of respiration - the diaphragm. Laterally and in front it is enclosed by the lower ribs and abdominal muscles. Behind, it is supported by the spinal column.

Fig. 5. The digestive system

The organs of the abdominal cavity are the liver, the gall-bladder, the stomach, the intestines, the pancreas, the spleen, the kidneys and the bladder.

The liver lies under the right ribs and extends across to the left of the epigastrium. The liver is a large organ that weighs about 1.5 kg. Everybody must know that the liver plays a very important role in the vital activities of the organism. It is the liver that secretes bile which participates in the digestive process and has a defensive function, i.e. some toxic substances are detoxified in the liver.

The gall-bladder lies beneath the right lobe of the liver. The gallbladder serves as a bile reservoir.

The stomach lies under the left ribs and extends across to the right. It is known that its smaller end situates in the epigastrium. The stomach serves as a container of food, which is partly digested in it. The size and shape of the stomach vary with any amount of food that is consumed and the extent of contraction of its wall. The stomach when it is filled with food is usually compared with a chemical retort. Its capacity is some 1-2 litres.

The intestines («internal» - Latin) occupy chiefly the central portions of the abdominal cavity. From the stomach the food passes in small portions into the small intestine where it undergoes further mechanical and chemical changes. As the contents of the small intestine cannot move back they may freely pass into the large intestine.

The «small» and «large» refers to the width, rather than the length. The small intestine is only 1.5 to 2 inches in diameter at the point where

it leaves the stomach and it narrows somewhat thereafter. The large intestine is up to 2.5 inches wide.

Упражнение 12. Прочтите и переведите письменно следующие предложе- ния из текста А.

1. The liver plays a very important part in the vital activity of the organism. It secretes bile which participates in the digestive process and has a defensive function, i.e. some toxic substances are detoxified in the liver. 2: From the stomach the food passes in small portions into the small intestine where it undergoes further mechanical and chemical changes.

3. The small intestine is only 1.5 to 2 inches in diameter at the point where it leaves the stomach and it narrows somewhat thereafter.

Упражнение 13. Прочтите и переведите текст А. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы и зачитайте их.

1. Where is the largest cavity of the body situated? 2. What organs does the abdominal cavity contain? 3. What are the characteristics of the liver?

4. What does the gall-bladder serve for? 5. What are the characteristics of the stomach? 6. How do we distinguish «small» and «large» intestines?

Упражнение 14. Составьте план текста А.

Упражнение 15. Подберите пары синонимов.

spinal column, to participate, beneath, thorax, chest, under, to take part, backbone

Упражнение 16. Подберите пары антонимов.

above, in front of, small, lower, to the left, to pass in; upper (higher), to the right, to leave, behind, below, large

Упражнение 17. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык. Оп- ределите тип придаточных предложений (см. ? 29 Грамматического справочника)

1. After the food leaves the stomach it is acted on by several digestive enzymes. 2. The stomach is a bag the walls of which are largely made up of involuntary or smooth muscle fibres. 3. The liver is a large and extremely important organ whose work is somewhat intermediate between digestion and nutrition. 4. The esophagus is a 9 to 10 inch muscular tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach. 5. The food material which is taken into the mouth must be digested mechanically or chemically as it travels through the gastrointestinal tract.

Упражнение 18. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите функции слова it (см. ? 35 Грамматического справочника)

1. It must be noted that the role of the stomach is to prepare the food chemically and mechanically. 2. When a group of organs performs a varified series of functions we call it a system. 3. It is the gastric glands in the stomach that secrete gastric juice, which is acid and acts on meals. 4. It is through the capillary network of the villi that digested foods pass to enter the bloodstream. 5. It is possible to refer painful intestines to bacterial or amoebic infection of the gastrointestinal tract. 6. After the food is properly prepared it is absorbed into the lymph vessels and blood vessels.

Упражнение 19. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Диафрагма - это большая мышца, которой грудная полость отделяется от брюшной. 2. Известно, что печень, расположенная в правом подреберье, является одним из самых крупных органов. Она выполняет несколько жизненно важных функций. 3. Именно в печени обезвреживаются некоторые токсичные вещества. 4. Толстый кишечник на 1-1,5 дюйма шире, чем тонкий.

Упражнение 20. Опишите органы пищеварения, используя рис. 5.

~~Часть II~~ Слова к части II

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Образуйте от данных слов прилагательные, используя суффиксы -al, -ive, -ous, и переведите их.

abdomen, intestine, mucus, to digest, defence, fibre, chemistry, mechanic, serum

Упражнение 2. Прочтите и запомните перевод следующих слов и слово- сочетаний.

Упражнение 3. Просмотрите текст В (10 мин). 1) Скажите, с точки зрения какой науки дается описание пищеварительной системы. 2) Найдите и переведите предложения, где употребляются: а) слово «it»; б) местоиме- ния some, any; в) слова through, result. 3) Найдите в тексте придаточные предложения и переведите их.

Text В

The Digestive System

The digestive system consists of the digestive tract and digestive glands. The digestive tract is some 8-10 m long and is divided into the following parts: oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The structures of the different parts of the tract have some special features.

The wall of the greater part of the digestive tract consists of three coats: internal - mucous, middle - muscular, and the external - serous. The mucous coat is lined with the epithelium outside which is a connective tissue with a thin layer of smooth muscle fibres. The mucous coat is pink in colour because it has many blood vessels. The numerous small glands in this coat secrete a viscous coat of the digestive tract. It facilitates the movement of food and protects the mucous coat from the damage by solid particles of food and various chemical substances. One must remember that the mucous coat of the digestive tract begins with the esophagus, contains lymph nodules which also have a protective function.

The greater part of the muscular coat of the digestive tract consists of two layers: an internal layer with circular muscle fibres and an external layer with longitudinal muscle fibres. The wall of the pharynx and the superior part of the esophagus, and the tongue and the soft palate all contain striated muscle tissue. It is the muscular coat of the other parts of the digestive tract that consists of smooth muscle tissue. Contractions of the muscular coat move food along the digestive tract.

The serous coat that covers the digestive organs in the abdominal cavity is called the peritoneum. The peritoneum has two layers, visceral and parietal. In the esophagus the serous layer is lacking and the outer coat is fibrous in nature.

The digestive glands secrete digestive juices that contain enzymes and some other substances which take part in the chemical processes of digestion.

In addition to the small glands in the mucous coat of the digestive tract, there are also large glands: the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas. Though these glands are situated outside the digestive tract, they communicate with it through ducts.

Any part of the digestive tract and the digestive glands are equipped with nerve fibres and their endings. The nerves of the digestive glands regulate the secretion of digestive juices. It is known that the nervous system not only regulates the activity of each organ, but also coordinates their activities.

Упражнение 5. Прочтите каждое суждение. Найдите в тексте В предло- жения, более полно выражающие мысль данного суждения, и прочтите их.

1. The digestive tract is divided into some parts. 2. The viscous coat of the digestive tract facilitates the movement of food. 3. The muscles of different types form the walls of the intestine. 4. The serous coat doesn't cover all the organs of the digestive system. 5. Enzymes take part in digestion. 6. Salivary glands, liver and pancreas are situated outside the digestive tract. 7. The nervous system regulates and coordinates the work of the digestive organs.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 5

Упражнение 1. Найдите предложения с усилительной конструкцией it is ... that и переведите их.

1. It is known that the abdomen is the largest cavity of the body. 2. It is the liver that weighs about 1.5 kg. 3. It is essential to explain the anatomy of the digestive system. 4. It is the nervous system that regulates the activity of each organ. 5. It is the slippery mucus that protects the esophagus.

(Ответ: 2, 4, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ?35 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Найдите и переведите предложения, в которых any имеет значение «любой».

1. Any lymph nodule of the mucous coat has a protective function. 2. Are there any blood vessels in the mucous coat? 3. Unlike the organs of the abdominal cavity the esophagus does not possess any serous layer.

4. Any digestive glands secrete digestive juices that contain special enzymes. 5. Are there any large glands in the digestive system?

(Ответ: 1, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 7 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Найдите и переведите определительные придаточные пред- ложения.

1. The upper portion of the stomach which is called the fundus is at the top. 2. The stomach when it is full becomes pear-shaped. 3. The gastric juice is unusual for a body fluid as it is strongly acid. 4. The enzymes that the digestive juices contain take an active part in the process of digestion.

5. Nutrients are substances that help your body to grow and develop. (Ответ: 1, 4, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 29 Грамматического справочника.)

LESSON SIX

THE URINARY SYSTEM

1. Эквиваленты модальных глаголов (? 17)

2. Употребление глагола в настоящем времени в значении будущего в условных и временных придаточных предложениях (? 30)

3. Функции и перевод слов since, as (?? 37, 38)

Часть I

Слова к части I

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Напишите следующие предложения в а) Past Indefinite; б) Future Indefinite согласно образцу.

Образец: He must pass the examination in anatomy.

He had to pass the examination in anatomy.

He will have to pass the examination in anatomy. 1. The students may take all necessary textbooks from the Institute library. 2. He can help you with your translation. 3. You must repeat the material of the lectures before the examination. 4. They cannot translate these articles without a dictionary.

Упражнение 2. Заполните пропуски модальными глаголами can, may, must, should.

1. In man, obstruction of the common duct ... produce abdominal symptoms and increase of serum amylase. 2. An ulcer ... occur only on an epithelial or mucosal surface. 3. Appendicitis ... be of different grades of intensity. 4. In an attack of acute appendicitis no food ... be taken by mouth and no water except in very small sips. 5. There was general agreement that the patient's diet ... be rich in protein and carbohy- drates, but poor in fat.

Упражнение 3. Замените в следующих предложениях модальные глаголы их эквивалентами.

1. The doctor says that you may walk. 2. The vitamins are substances which must be found in the diets of animals in order that they can utilize the organic foodstuffs to best advantage. 3. When the appetite is impaired and nausea and vomiting are common, meals must be small and be given at frequent intervals. 4. With the disappearance of symptoms the patient with infective hepatitis may leave his bed for purposes of toilet.

Упражнение 4. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите время глагола-сказуемого в главных и придаточных предложениях.

1. When dehydration occurs from excessive vomiting, parenteral feeding will be used. 2. If the diagnosis is correct, the patient will be

properly treated. 3. If coma develops, the patient will be transferred to hospital as soon as possible. 4. If some infectious fever is diagnosed, the patient is moved to the hospital in an ambulance. 5. If you hold your breath, carbon dioxide will immediately begin to accumulate in the blood.

Упражнение 5. Прочтите и переведите следующие предложения. Опреде- лите, какую функцию выполняет слово as.

1. In the process of metabolism certain waste products must be cast off as the body has no use for them. 2. The liver clears the body of bilirubin pigment which is produced as hemoglobin is broken down and red blood cells are destroyed. 3. Bile acts as an emulsifier, with detergent-like effect on the fats in the duodenum. 4. The pharynx serves as a passage-way for air from the nasal cavity to the larynx as well as for food. 5. As the man smells something he likes to eat, the gastric juice is poured out in large quantities.

Упражнение 6. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите, какую функцию выполняет слово since.

1. Since penicillin was discovered a vast amount of information has been accumulated concerning its use. 2. Senna is a favourite cathartic, since it can be made up into a sweet mass. 3. Since the liver of polikilothermic animals is less demanding than that of mammals, the liver of the frog is generally used for different kinds of investigations. 4. I have studied English since 2001.

Упражнение 7. Отработайте чтение следующих предложений.

Упражнение 8. Запомните значение нижеприведенных суффиксов и пре- фиксов. Образуйте и переведите производные слова согласно модели.

1. -ment - образует существительные от глаголов: to move двигаться) - movement движение.

to nourish кормить, питать, to improve улучшать(ся), to develop развиваться)

2. a) -en - образует прилагательные от существительных, обозначающие материал: wood дерево - wooden деревянный. gold золото, wool шерсть, lead свинец

b) -en - образует глаголы от именных основ: deep глубокий -to deepen углубляться).

strength сила, moist влага, less меньше, straight прямой, length длина

Упражнение 9. Прочтите и переведите следующие гнезда слов.

1. excrete, secrete, excretion, secretion, excretory, secretory; 2. urine, urinary, urethra, ureter, urea; 3. pelvis, pelvic; 4. number, to number, numerous, numberless

Упражнение 10. Просмотрите текст А и скажите, какие части мочевой системы описаны в тексте.

Text A The Urinary System

1. The uriuary system is the system which excretes the largest part of the waste products of the body. It consists of the kidneys, right and left, the ureters, a tube from each kidney which conveys the urine to the bladder, the urethra, a tube that leads from the bladder, along which the urine is passed out of the body.

2. The kidneys («renes» - Latin) are placed one on each side in the lumbar region of the spine, on the posterior abdominal wall, at the level of the twelfth thoracic and first-second lumbar vertebrae. A kidney weighs about 150 grams and is covered by membranes. The connective tissue membrane which directly adheres to the kidney is called the fibrous capsule. This capsule is surrounded by perirenal fat and is called the adipose capsule. The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs. The kidneys contain one mil-

Fig. 6. The organs of the urinary system

lion small tubes, which have to excrete products of metabolism and control the concentrations of most of the constituents of body fluids. These small tubules make up the parenchyma of the kidney. They are very fine and may be of various shape. Since dissolved (растворенные) wastes may be excreted by diffusion through the various cell membranes there is little evidence that such excretion occurs.

3. The inner margin of the kidney is known as the hilus. At the hilus the ureter which conveys urine is a tube about 30 cm long. When the ureter leaves the hilus it descends along the posterior abdominal wall into the cavity of the pelvis where it perforates the wall of the bladder and opens into its cavity. As the muscular coat of the ureter contracts it has to perform peristaltic movements.

4. The bladder is a reservoir for urine. It is situated in the cavity of the pelvis. The bladder has three parts: the superior part or apex, the middle part or body, and the inferior part or fundus. The wall of the bladder consists of three coatings - mucous, muscular and connective tissue. The mucous membrane of the bladder forms numerous folds. If the bladder fills, the folds of the mucous coat will straighten out. The muscular coat consists of three layers of smooth muscles which are able to extend in different directions. It should be known that the capacity of the bladder of an adult is about 350-500 ml.

Упражнение 11. Прочтите и переведите текст А. Третий абзац переведите письменно.

Упражнение 12. Найдите в тексте А ответы на следующие вопросы и зачитайте их.

1. What are the parts of the urinary system? 2. Where are the kidneys placed? 3. What are the functions of the fine tubes which make up the parenchyma of the kidney? 4. What route does the ureter pass?

Упражнение 13. Составьте план текста А.

Упражнение 14. Подберите пары синонимов.

to consist of, to excrete, fine, capacity, fundus, volume, bottom, to be made up of, to pass out, minute

Упражнение 15. Подберите пары антонимов.

to ascend, large, the same, to discover, inferior, superior, to cover, small, various, to descend

Упражнение 16. Переведите предложения. Определите, какой частью речи являются выделенные слова. Найдите их значение в словаре.

1. The tubules which make up the parenchyma of the kidney are very fine. 2. The weather was fine on holidays. 3. As the bladder fills the folds of the mucous coat straighten out. 4. All higher animals have a backbone or vertebral column as it is called. 5. Smooth muscles form the muscular coat of internal organs such as esophagus, stomach and so on. They are also present as single cells or as cylindrical bundles of cells in the skin. 6. The muscular substance of the heart is known as myocardium.

Упражнение 17. Найдите модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты в следующих предложениях. Переведите предложения.

1. All nitrogenous waste products must be thrown off by the body first because they are useless, second because in some instances they are poisonous.

2. Many substances can affect the kidney epithelium so as to render it more or less reduced in ability to excrete urine. 3. Physiotherapeutic treatment of patients with chronic pyelonephritis should be advisable only in combination with medicamental therapy. 4. The kidney has to put back into the bloodstream all the materials that the body needs. 5. The process of filtration in the kidney is dependent upon the character of the membrane which may vary in permeability. 6. The effect of complex therapy in patients with chronic pyelonephritis may be only achieved when urodynamics is restored.

Упражнение 18. Переведите следующие предложения. Запомните значение слов as, since.

1. As the blood courses through the capillary glomeruli, the kidney cells take up water, salts and waste bodies. 2. Pathogenetic therapy includes such antiinflammatory preparations, as salicylates, dichlorophene, lydasa, aloe.

3. The wastes are substances which are taken in with the foods or as foods.

4. The phenomena of coagulation have received great attention from physiologists since the earliest times. 5. Since the arterioles of each renal artery are small, blood passes through them slowly, but constantly. 6. Since plasma sodium concentration remained unchanged, the experiments establish the ability of cadmium to increase tubular sodium reabsorption.

Упражнение 19. Переведите следующие предложения. Объясните, в каких случаях форма глагола-сказуемого в настоящем времени переводится будущим временем.

1. After the kidney cells remove the end products of food from the blood these substances are washed out of the tubules into the pelvis of

the kidney down the ureter into the bladder. 2. When the man smells something that he likes to eat, the gastric juice will be poured out in large quantities. 3. If the kidney is diseased and cannot excrete urine, the amount of urea in the blood is increased. 4. When no nerve impulses go to the heart-muscle, it will not beat regularly and rhythmically. 5. When the sympathetic nerve in the neck of a rabbit is cut, the blood vessels in the ear on that side become very much dilated.

Упражнение 20. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Большая часть продуктов распада вьгаодится из организма почками. 2. Паренхима почки состоит из 1 000 000 маленьких трубочек, которые могут быть различной формы. 3. По мере того как мочевой пузырь наполняется, складки слизистой оболочки расправляются. 4. Емкость мочевого пузыря составляет в среднем 350-500 мл.

Упражнение 21. Назовите органы мочевыделительной системы, используя рис. 6.

~~Часть II~~ Слова к части II

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Подберите пары синонимов.

waste products, much, amount, stop, also, a good deal, cease, waste matters, too, quantity

Упражнение 2. Подберите пары антонимов.

large, to join, concave, inner, outwards, to separate, outer, convex, inwards, minute

Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие предложения. Запомните значение слов certain, cause, to regard.

1. The chief function of the kidneys is to separate fluid and certain solids from the blood. 2. The kidneys may be regarded as filters through which the whole blood of the body passes, and which remove from the blood a substance that is called urea together with other impurities. 3. If the kidneys cease to work from any cause, the blood will become poisonous.

Упражнение 4. Прочтите текст В (10 мин). 1) Скажите, на сколько частей можно разделить текст и какова тема каждой из них. 2) Найдите предло- жения, где: а) даны эквиваленты модальных глаголов; б) слова since, as; в) глагол-сказуемое в придаточных времени и условия употребляется в форме настоящего времени, которая переводится будущим временем. 3) Переведите предложения.

Text В The Kidneys

Kidneys are a pair of glands which are situated close to the spine in the upper part of the abdomen. They are on a level with the last dorsal and upper two lumbar vertebrae. They are kept in this position by a quantity of fat, loose connective tissue, in which they are embedded, and the large vessels which have to supply them with blood.

Structure. In size each kidney is about 4 inches long, 2.5 inches wide, 1.5 inches thick, and weighs over 4 ounces. The size, however, may vary a good deal. The left kidney is slightly longer and narrower, and lies a little higher in the abdomen than the right.

Since the outer margin of the kidney is convex, the inner is concave. It presents a deep depression, which is known as the hilus, where the vessels enter its substance. At the hilus the renal vein lies in front of the renal artery, the former joins the inferior vena cava, and the latter springs from the aorta almost at a right angle.

Vertical section through a kidney allows to disclose three concentric zones. The outer light-coloured zone is the renal cortex, within this is the darker renal medulla and within this again is a space - the renal sinus which is normally occupied by fibrous sac, the renal pelvis. The cortex extends inwards in a series of renal columns which divide the medulla into a number of renal pyramids.

Within the cortex each minute artery presents a vascular knot, a glomerulus. Each glomerulus projects into the end of its corresponding renal tubule, which is separated by a thin layer of cells, glomerular (Bowman's) capsule;

glomerulus plus capsule forms a renal (Malpighian) corpuscle. A renal corpuscle with tubules and blood vessels is called a renal unit, or nephron.

Function. One chief function of the kidneys is to separate fluid and certain solids form the blood. The glomeruli are to filter from the blood the non-protein portion of the plasma. It is estimated that in 24 hours the total human glomeruli will be able to filter between 150 and 200 litres, 99 per cent of which is reabsorbed by the tubules.

The kidneys are to be regarded as filters through which the whole blood of the body passes and which remove from the blood a substance, urea, together with other impurities, which together constitute the urine. The cleansed blood passes on in its vessels, and the urine drains into the ureters and finally into the bladder. If the kidneys cease to work the blood will become poisonous because of the accumulation of the waste matters.

Упражнение 5. Прочтите каждое суждение. Найдите в тексте предложе- ния, более полно выражающие мысль данных суждений, и прочтите их.

1. Kidneys are situated close to the spine. 2. The vessels enter the substance of the kidney at the hilus. 3. The renal cortex, renal medulla and renal sinus are three concentric zones of the kidney. 4. The kidneys may be regarded as filters.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 6

Упражнение 1. Найдите и переведите предложения, где сказуемое стоит в прошедшем времени.

1. The renal blood vessels can be constricted or dilated. 2. The patient was allowed to take this analgetic. 3. The boy will be able to walk by himself. 4. The inflow of blood had to be diminished when the renal blood vessels were constricted.

(Ответ: 2, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 17 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Найдите и переведите предложения, где глагол to have выражает долженствование.

1. The bowels have the function to secrete the end products of digestion. 2. The lungs have to excrete carbon dioxide and water. 3. The

boy has been recently examined in a surgical department for intestinal pains. 4. Carbon dioxide is a gas which has to be eliminated from the body.

(Ответ: 2, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 17 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Найдите и переведите предложения, где выделенные гла- голы-сказуемые переводятся будущим временем.

1. When a person suffers from a severe pain he has to consult a doctor.

2. If there is any disfunction of the kidney, it will affect the process of urine formation. 3. When the renal blood vessels are dilated, the inflow of blood will increase. 4. If the renal blood vessels are constricted, less urine will be formed.

(Ответ: 2, 3, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ? 30 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 4. Найдите и переведите предложения, где as и since являются союзами.

1. Waste products such as products of albuminous nutrition are excreted by the kidneys. 2. Since water is taken into the body, some of it is excreted through the lungs and perspiration. 3. The kidneys contain a large number of nerve fibres as their work is regulated by the nervous system. 4. As the renal blood vessels are dilated, the urine formation is changed. 5. Since last week there was no protein or sugar in the urine analysis. 6. Some waste materials are carried to the bladder and excreted as urine.

(Ответ: 2, 3, 4. Если вы ошиблись, повторите ?? 37, 38 Грамматического справочника.)

Оглавление

Английский язык : учебник / И. Ю. Марковина, З. К. Максимова, М. Б. Вайнштейн; - 4-е изд., испр. и перераб. - 2010. - 368 с.

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